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Gut microbiome changes over the course of multiple sclerosis differentially influence autoimmune neuroinflammation

Amélia Sarmento, Tommy Regen, Daniela Ferro, Ángel Ruiz-Moreno, Cintya González-Torres, Katlynn Carter, Arthi Shanmugavadivu, Ari Waisman, Maria José Sá, Carles Ubeda

Posted on: 14 May 2026

Preprint posted on 24 February 2026

A time‑dependent role of the gut microbiome in Multiple Sclerosis progression

Selected by Carole Djagang, Nour HAROUN, Phalica Georges, uMontreal Neuro preLighters

Background

Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is a dynamic disease Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a dynamic disease characterized by continuous changes over time. During its early stages, the disease is driven primarily by inflammatory processes that lead to focal demyelinating lesions and episodic neurological symptoms¹,². While genetic factors contribute to MS susceptibility, environmental factors are believed to play a dominant role in its initiation and progression³–⁵. Notably, the gut microbiome has emerged as a critical regulator of immune responses, raising fundamental questions about whether changes in gut bacteria actively drive neurological disease or instead reflect secondary consequences of chronic inflammation ⁶–¹¹.

Although gut microbiome alterations (dysbiosis) have been consistently reported in MS patients, it remains unclear how this relationship evolves over the decades-long course of the disease. Specifically, it is unclear whether microbiome changes are causally linked to disease progression or merely correlate with disease state. Research has shown that MS patients harbor gut microbial communities distinct from those of healthy individuals. In animal models, such differences can directly influence disease severity. However, whether such microbiota-driven immune effects persist throughout the disease or are confined to earlier stages remains an open question.

In this context, the present study focuses on a specific cohort of relapsing-remitting MS (RRMS) patients, using a 16-year disease duration threshold to distinguish between “early” and “late” stages. This stratification allows investigation of a potential temporal “window of opportunity” during which modulation of the gut microbiota may exert maximal influence on systemic immune responses and disease trajectory.

Specifically, the study asks whether the gut microbiota’s capacity to shape immune regulation evolves over the course of MS, and whether this evolution parallels the shift from peripheral inflammation to compartmentalized neurodegeneration within the central nervous system. The researchers hypothesize that during early MS (Short-MS), the gut microbiota acts as a key driver of systemic pro-inflammatory responses, whereas this influence diminishes as the disease progresses and pathology becomes increasingly CNS-compartmentalized. Implicitly, this raises the possibility that microbiome-derived signatures could serve as stage-specific biomarkers, potentially informing prognosis or therapeutic timing.

Figure generated using Microsoft PowerPoint: Proposed time‑dependent contribution of the gut microbiota to multiple sclerosis progression.

Key Findings

Mice were treated with antibiotics to eliminate their original microbiota and then received three consecutive transplants from human donors to restore it (preprint Fig. 3A). Each faecal sample used for transplantation came from one of three groups (controls, short-MS, and long-MS). After 3 weeks, faecal samples were taken to make sure that the microbiota from human donors was able to implant itself correctly to the gastrointestinal tract of the recipient.

Preprint Figure 3A: Experimental design of the in vivo study. Made available under a CC-BY 4.0 International license.

Short-MS microbiota exacerbates disease severity

Mice transplanted with faecal samples demonstrated a similar disease course with a peak followed by a partial recovery period. It was, however, not the case for mice transplanted with short-MS faecal samples, which showed a higher disease burden not followed by a remission phase. (preprint Fig. 3B).

Preprint Figure 3B: Short-MS FMT induces significantly stronger EAE in C57BL/6 mice as compared to long-MS samples. Made available under a CC-BY 4.0 International license.

Loss of Treg-mediated regulation correlates with disease severity

FOXP3 is expressed by Treg. FoxP3+ Rorgt+ pTreg cells are directly related to the microbiota and inflammation. A decrease of FOXP3+ Treg cells and FOXP3+ Rorgt+ PTreg cells was observed in the colon of mice treated with short-MS microbiota (preprint Fig. 4F).  The count of FOXP3+ Treg cells was negatively correlated with the maximum clinical score reached during the EAE development used to model neuroinflammation-related damages seen in multiple sclerosis (preprint Fig. 4G).

Preprint Figure 4F: Populations of large intestinal Treg cells are reduced in mice receiving short-MS human donor FMTs, while the mean fluorescence intensity (MFI) of the major Treg cell transcription factor FoxP3 remained unaltered throughout both populations in all groups. Preprint Fig 4G: The frequency of colonic Treg cells negatively correlates with maximal EAE severity in mice across all FMT groups. Made available under a CC-BY 4.0 International license.

Short-MS microbiota promotes systemic inflammation

All faecal samples led to an increase in anti-inflammatory cytokine (IL-10) production by Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells (PBMCs). However, the control supernatant was a greater IL-10 inducer (preprint Fig. 5A). A higher secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-a and IL-17) was detected in cells stimulated only with the faecal extracts of short-MS patients (preprint Fig. 5B-C). These results show that the microbiota from short-MS patients has a greater capacity of evoking systemic inflammatory responses.

Preprint Figure 5: Cytokine concentration ((A) IL-10; (B) TNFα; (C) IL-17a) in supernatants from PBMC cultures obtained from healthy donors. Cultures were incubated with PBS (naïve), or with fecal material isolated from controls, short-MS or long-MS patients. Made available under a CC-BY 4.0 International license.

Why we highlight this preprint

This preprint really resonated with us, as it highlights how complex diseases like MS require multidisciplinary approaches. We found it particularly interesting that the gut microbiome evolves with disease stage shifting from a proinflammatory profile early on to a more balanced state later. By focusing on intra-disease variation, it offers a fresh perspective on how these changes shape immune responses and progression.

Our longstanding interest in MS stems from its clinical heterogeneity, unpredictability, and the shifting inflammatory dynamics that make RR form uniquely compelling to explore.

Additionally, this paper parallels our own work using adoptive transfer of activated T cells to induce Parkinsonism-like phenotype in germ-free mice. After encountering difficulties reproducing this model in a new animal facility, we hypothesized that differences in gut microbiota might explain this variability. The findings support our view, showing that immune activation alone is insufficient; microbial composition critically modulates neuroimmune outcomes.

Questions for the authors

1. Would it be possible to include additional control groups, such as mice that were only immunized (MOG), PTx only or those that received microbiota transfer alone, to better isolate and assess the specific influence of the microbiota on the host response?

2. Would it be possible to examine the immune cells composition within the brains of the recipient mice to more precisely identify which cellular subsets had traversed the blood–brain barrier, or to characterize the CNS‑infiltrating immune populations elicited in response to microbiota transfer? Such analyses could provide a deeper mechanistic understanding of how microbiota‑driven immune modulation shapes neuroinflammatory pathways and contributes to neurodegenerative processes

3. It is unclear whether patients discontinued immunomodulatory/suppressive therapy before fecal sampling. If not, how can you rule out that the observed microbiome profiles result from drug effects rather than disease‑related changes, especially if the agent is oral and can directly alter the mice’s response after transplantation?

References

  1. Pontieri, L., Greene, N., Wandall-Holm, M.F., Geertsen, S.S., Asgari, N., Jensen, H.B., Illes, Z., Schäfer, J., Jensen, R.M., Sejbæk, T., Weglewski, A., Mahler, M.R., Poulsen, M.B., Prakash, S., Stilund, M., Kant, M., Rasmussen, P.V., Svendsen, K.B., Sellebjerg, F., Magyari, M., 2024. Patterns and predictors of multiple sclerosis phenotype transition. Brain Commun. 6, fcae422. doi:10.1093/braincomms/fcae422
  2. Zanghì, A., Copetti, M., Avolio, C., Paolicelli, D., Romeo, M.A.L., Patti, F., Luca, G.D., Amato, M.P., Galgani, S., Sola, P., Salemi, G., Gallo, P., Granella, F., Romano, S., Zaffaroni, M., Bergamaschi, R., Pozzilli, C., Lus, G., Vianello, M., Trojano, M., D’Amico, E., Danni, M.C., Totaro, R., Lugaresi, A., Cocco, E., Valentino, P., Iaffaldano, P., Inglese, M., Bellantonio, P., Filippi, M., Rovaris, M., Clerici, V.T., Ferraro, D., Lus, G., Maniscalco, G.T., Morra, V.B., Pesci, I., Foschi, M., Aguglia, U., Montepietra, S., Marfia, G.A., 2025. Multiple sclerosis from onset to secondary progression: a 30-year Italian register study. J. Neurol., Neurosurg. Psychiatry 96, 1061–1069. doi:10.1136/jnnp-2025-335958
  3. Baranzini, S.E., Oksenberg, J.R., 2017. The Genetics of Multiple Sclerosis: From 0 to 200 in 50 Years. Trends Genet. 33, 960–970. doi:10.1016/j.tig.2017.09.004
  4. Goris, A., Vandebergh, M., McCauley, J.L., Saarela, J., Cotsapas, C., 2022. Genetics of multiple sclerosis: lessons from polygenicity. Lancet Neurol. 21, 830–842. doi:10.1016/s1474-4422(22)00255-1
  5. Fagnani, C., Neale, M.C., Nisticò, L., Stazi, M.A., Ricigliano, V.A., Buscarinu, M.C., Salvetti, M., Ristori, G., 2014. Twin studies in multiple sclerosis: A meta-estimation of heritability and environmentality. Mult. Scler. J. 21, 1404–1413. doi:10.1177/1352458514564492
  6. Miyake, S., Kim, S., Suda, W., Oshima, K., Nakamura, M., Matsuoka, T., Chihara, N., Tomita, A., Sato, W., Kim, S.-W., Morita, H., Hattori, M., Yamamura, T., 2015. Dysbiosis in the Gut Microbiota of Patients with Multiple Sclerosis, with a Striking Depletion of Species Belonging to Clostridia XIVa and IV Clusters. PLoS ONE 10, e0137429. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0137429.s010
  7. Jangi, S., Gandhi, R., Cox, L.M., Li, N., Glehn, F. von, Yan, R., Patel, B., Mazzola, M.A., Liu, S., Glanz, B.L., Cook, S., Tankou, S., Stuart, F., Melo, K., Nejad, P., Smith, K., uolu, B. uuml m D.T. ccedil, Holden, J., kk, P.K. auml, Chitnis, T., Jager, P.L.D., Quintana, F.J., Gerber, G.K., Bry, L., Weiner, H.L., 2016. Alterations of the human gut microbiome in multiple sclerosis. Nature Communications 7, 1–11. doi:10.1038/ncomms12015
  8. Tremlett, H., Fadrosh, D.W., Faruqi, A.A., Hart, J., Roalstad, S., Graves, J., Spencer, C.M., Lynch, S.V., Zamvil, S.S., Waubant, E., Centers, U.N. of P.M., 2016. Associations between the gut microbiota and host immune markers in pediatric multiple sclerosis and controls. BMC neurology 16, 182–9. doi:10.1186/s12883-016-0703-3
  9. Berer, K., Gerdes, L.A., Cekanaviciute, E., Jia, X., Xiao, L., Xia, Z., Liu, C., Klotz, L., Stauffer, U., Baranzini, S.E., Kümpfel, T., Hohlfeld, R., Krishnamoorthy, G., Wekerle, H., 2017. Gut microbiota from multiple sclerosis patients enables spontaneous autoimmune encephalomyelitis in mice. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 114, 10719–10724. doi:10.1073/pnas.1711233114
  10. Reynders, T., Devolder, L., Valles‐Colomer, M., Remoortel, A.V., Joossens, M., Keyser, J.D., Nagels, G., D’hooghe, M., Raes, J., 2020. Gut microbiome variation is associated to Multiple Sclerosis phenotypic subtypes. Ann. Clin. Transl. Neurol. 7, 406–419. doi:10.1002/acn3.51004
  11. Horton, M.K., McCauley, K., Fadrosh, D., Fujimura, K., Graves, J., Ness, J., Wheeler, Y., Gorman, M.P., Benson, L.A., Weinstock‐Guttman, B., Waldman, A., Rodriguez, M., Tillema, J., Krupp, L., Belman, A., Mar, S., Rensel, M., Chitnis, T., Casper, T.C., Rose, J., Hart, J., Shao, X., Tremlett, H., Lynch, S.V., Barcellos, L.F., Waubant, E., Centers, the U.S.N. of P.M., 2021. Gut microbiome is associated with multiple sclerosis activity in children. Ann. Clin. Transl. Neurol. 8, 1867–1883. doi:10.1002/acn3.51441

Tags: gut microbiome, host–microbe interactions, immune modulation, ms, multiple sclerosis, neuroinflammation, t cell responses

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